Title: The Ultimate Educator: Achieving Maximum Adult Learning Through Training and Instruction Series: National Victim Assistance Academy Advanced Topic Series Authors/Editors: Christine Edmunds, Kip Lowe, Morna Murray, Anne Seymour for the National Victim Assistance Academy. Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime, National Victim Assistance Academy; in conjunction with Victims' Assistance Legal Organization (VALOR), California State University-Fresno, National Crime Victims' Research and Treatment Center at the Medical University of South Carolina, University of New Haven, and Washburn University Published: June 2002 Subject: Victim assistance training and leadership 132 pages 274,432 bytes ---------------------------- Appendices, figures, charts, forms, and tables are not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available from this Web site. ---------------------------- Table of Contents Chapter 1. The Many Roles and Responsibilities of the Ultimate Educator o Introduction o The Ultimate Educator o Roles and Responsibilities o It's Magic Time! Chapter 2. Ultimate Coordination o Introduction o Three Needs to Which Coordinators Respond o The Many Roles of the Program Coordinator o Four Guiding Principles of Coordination o Program Coordination in Action o The Ultimate Coordinator Is All Things to All People! o References Chapter 3. Ultimate Adult Learning o Historical Roots of Adult Learning Principles o Adult Learning and the Ultimate Educator o Learning Style o Learning Environment Conditions Affect Learning o The Ultimate Educator Is an Adult Learning Expert! o References Chapter 4. Ultimate Style and Skill o Introduction o Style Stereotypes o Communication Style o Trainer Skill Assessment o The Ultimate Educator Has Ultimate Style! o References Chapter 5. Ultimate Facilitation o Introduction o Doing Your Homework o Responsive Behaviors o General Skills o The Ultimate Facilitator Is a Master Magician! Chapter 6. Ultimate Presentation o Introduction o The Role of the Presenter/Trainer o Teaching Versus Training o Training Preparation o Anatomy of a Presentation o Communication Skills and Styles o Dealing with "Problem Participants" o Training Aids o "Staying on the Cutting Edge" o References Chapter 7. Ultimate Lesson Development and Design o Introduction o Background Information o Materials Required o Learning Goals and Objectives o Instructional Activities o Evaluation/Assessment o Putting It Together: Lesson Plan Principles and Preparation o Follow-up Activities o References Chapter 8. Ultimate Closing and Evaluation o Introduction o Ending an Individual Session o Ending the Workshop o Evaluation o Ultimate Educators Close Workshops with Style and Class and Gather the Information Necessary to Provide Even Better Training in the Future! o References ---------------------------- Appendices are not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available from this Web site. ---------------------------- This project was supported by Grant Number 95-MU-GX-K002(S-5) awarded by the Office for Victims of Crime, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The Assistant Attorney General, Office of Justice Programs coordinates the activities of the following program offices and bureaus: Bureau of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Institute of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. Points of view in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. ---------------------------- Chapter 1. The Many Roles and Responsibilities of the Ultimate Educator Introduction Many of you have had the pleasure of learning new information or a new skill under the guidance of a skilled teacher, changing your behavior assisted by a skilled therapist, or acquiring new knowledge aided by a skilled trainer. You remember with fondness and admiration that sixth grade teacher, for example, and wonder how he or she worked magic. You have written on evaluations, "outstanding instructor, best training session I have ever attended, I learned a lot!" What was it about these "magicians" that made those situations such rich and rewarding learning experiences? Behind every learning opportunity there was an ultimate educator: an individual who helped you explore ideas and feelings, assess and analyze, and develop and implement new ways of thinking and behaving. Certainly there was something "special" about these gifted individuals, and yet underneath all that magic, there was keen understanding and some readily identifiable skills that made it all work. What makes this course different from other "how to train" courses? The difference is subtle but powerful; a difference that gains clarity and importance as you progress through the course. Most "how to train" courses focus on the content of training, the "basics," such as adult learning principles, lesson plan development, training design, training tools, and evaluation--all important and essential elements of a trainer development course. Participants in these courses limit their attention to the "tangible" components (the what) of training. They learn how to develop, organize, deliver, and evaluate training with a few presentation tips and strategies. When participants apply their new knowledge and skills back in the "real world," they feel somewhat more competent and may improve their overall rating, but they may still look back to that magical instructor and ask themselves why, when they seemingly applied the same principles and techniques, it just was not as effective (or as enjoyable!). An effective trainer development course must also explore the process--the how to of training. What does the instructor do to ensure that session participants successfully meet learning objectives? How does the instructor perform the magic of training? This manual and the accompanying training program define the multifaceted role of the "magician" and look behind the smoke and mirrors to uncover the magician's secrets. You will explore and manipulate principles that underlie all quality "magic shows." You will learn and practice skills to add to your trick bag and use the magic of this manual to transform yourself into the ultimate educator. The Ultimate Educator Whether the environment is an academic classroom or training venue, the goal is the same: maximum adult learning. With the focus of this course being the identification of principles and skills that contribute to maximum adult learning, the individual who performs the "magic" is the ultimate educator. The ultimate educator is a cross between a teacher and trainer. Employing a combination of academic approaches and training skill-building strategies, the ultimate educator creates a rich learning environment. The skills are universal and cross all learning boundaries and content areas. Throughout the manual certain terms are interchangeable--training, trainer, education, educator, instruction, instructor. This is a reflection of the vision of the ultimate educator and the "magic" of learning. Teachers and trainers, new or seasoned, can benefit from the principles and skills identified in this manual. Roles and Responsibilities The traditional perception of the instructor as a presenter of information is far too simple. Within individual segments and across an entire course, the ultimate educator wears many hats. The ultimate educator is a coordinator, facilitator, presenter, and designer/developer. The roles and responsibilities change with the type of training conducted by the ultimate educator. The training program may be a one-hour stand-alone session or a week-long academy; each dictates different and often unique responsibilities for the instructor. You may be called upon to develop training, coordinate a multiday workshop, deliver a single segment, participate in a panel discussion with people you have never met before, or facilitate a group process. While not all responsibilities will be required in all situations, these are some of the critical responsibilities of the educator. THE COORDINATOR Man stand for long time with mouth open before roast duck fly in. --Chinese Proverb Just as much of the design work of training takes place before the trainer takes the stage, much coordination takes place behind the scenes. The ultimate educator must be skilled in the coordination of training. Often you find that in addition to delivering courses, you are required to perform management tasks related to coordination or training. While there is usually not much glory in these responsibilities, they are critical; without successful coordination, the session cannot take place. Chapter 2, Ultimate Coordination, addresses coordination topics such as logistics, scheduling, publicity, room setup, budget, special needs, trouble shooting, and climate control. THE FACILITATOR They are able because they think they are able. --Virgil, Aeneid Learning objectives tell you where you need to go. Training design is the map; presentation, the vehicle; facilitation, the fuel. Effective facilitation skills help guarantee that learning takes place. The ultimate educator is a master facilitator. Chapter 5, Ultimate Facilitation, covers facilitation topics such as responsive behaviors, motivation, commitment, body language, cooperation, group dynamics, activities monitoring, knowledge solicitation, and handling problem participants. THE PRESENTER The secret of teaching is to appear to have known all your life what you learned this afternoon. --Unknown The traditional role of instructor as presenter has received the bulk of attention in training-for-trainer courses and is the most visible role in the training session. One may adequately fill other instructor roles, but an outstanding instructor is always an outstanding presenter. Therefore, the ultimate educator is a skilled presenter. Chapter 6, Ultimate Presentation, de-mystifies the art of presentation. You will learn about organization, hooks, aids, challenges, styles, roles, and how to handle questions and answers. THE DESIGNER/DEVELOPER "Can you tell me please which way I ought to go from here?" said Alice. "That depends a good deal on where you want to get to," said the Cat. "I don't much care where," said Alice "Then it doesn't matter which way you walk," said the Cat. -- Lewis Carroll (1886) Much of the work of training takes place before the trainer takes the stage. The ultimate educator must be knowledgeable about and skilled in the design and development of training programs. Once you have established a need for training, it's time to determine what you intend to teach and what the participant must do to demonstrate that he or she has mastered or learned the objectives of the course. After writing specific performance objectives, the ultimate educator then selects the methods, techniques, and materials that will ensure successful training. Chapter 7, Ultimate Lesson Development and Design, explores these components of training programs. It's Magic Time! The manual and the accompanying training program cover additional topics essential for the development of ultimate educators. Chapter 3, Ultimate Adult Learning, provides the foundation for ultimate training and creating the ultimate learning environment. Chapter 4, Ultimate Style and Skill, explores the characteristics of successful instructors and provides an opportunity to assess your own personal style. And last, Chapter 8, Ultimate Closing and Evaluation, discusses the importance of effective training closure and evaluation. Are you ready? It's magic time! ---------------------------- Chapter 2. Ultimate Coordination Program planners are very much like orchestra conductors. They must be able to bring together diverse players and pieces in a harmonious and balanced effort. This task may not be easy; some of the pieces may be much more difficult than anticipated . . . --Caffarella Introduction Coordinating a training/educational program is a significant and complex undertaking. The process of coordination begins well before the start of a training program and concludes long after the final closing has taken place. Along the way, tasks range from the mundane to the more complicated, from scheduling meeting rooms to curriculum development, from ordering food to responding to participants' inquiries. Unlike the other training roles discussed throughout this manual, the role of coordination takes place, to a large extent, behind the scenes. A great majority of it occurs in preparation for the training. Effective coordination is absolutely key to the success of any training program. Why is this so? Like the orchestra described in the above quotation, a training program is a unique coming together of a talented and diverse group of individuals and elements. Like a musical selection, each note must have been rehearsed, each instrument must be tuned and ready, and each musician must have thoroughly rehearsed his or her own piece of music. The conductor knows all the parts and is able to direct and manage the multiple components into one cohesive and harmonious whole. A program coordinator fulfills the same function. Coordination is the support function of a training program--under the best of circumstances, it is the glue that holds all the various components of the program together. That is not to say that one person, i.e., the program coordinator, is responsible for holding everything together, but rather that the process of coordination, and how it has been organized, set up, and carried out, serves as the foundation for and effectively sets the tone of any training program. It is important to distinguish between the process of coordination and the role of the coordinator. Although the coordinator may be one distinct member of the training/educational team, in fact, many facilitators and presenters perform coordination functions, and coordinators often have presentation and facilitation roles as well. In any successful training program, all members of the training team (i.e., on-site faculty and coordinators) have established a smooth and effective level of teamwork that allows for maximum flexibility and is fully supportive of the needs of participants as well as the needs of the training team members. This manual repeatedly illustrates that a key role of a training team is to promote and maximize learning and, in so doing, to be fully aware of and focused upon the needs of the audience. In the same way, the process of coordination focuses upon meeting the needs of the key parties, i.e., the participants, faculty, staff, and program sponsors, in carrying out the tasks essential to managing a training program. In addition to the training team, program coordinators often work with a planning committee--a group of people who share responsibility for all decisions regarding the training program. Generally the committee will include the program sponsor, the coordinator, content specialists, and often, an advisory board or group. To maximize the effectiveness and talents of the planning committee, you must ensure from the beginning that all roles, responsibilities, and expectations regarding each member are clearly and specifically designed. SCOPE Coordination can refer to everything from a small in-house staff training to a huge national-scope conference with thousands of attendees. Coordination as it is discussed in this chapter is based predominantly on the type of training and educational programs developed and implemented by the National Victim Assistance Academy. This is not an exhaustive description of coordination from the conference-planning viewpoint but rather an exploration of the kind of program coordination that is key to the success of academic-based training and education programs for adult learners. Three Needs to Which Coordinators Respond There are three types of needs to which a program coordinator must respond. While these needs are discussed throughout this chapter, a brief summary appears below. EDUCATION/LEARNING NEEDS There are differing levels of involvement that a program coordinator may have in meeting the educational and learning needs of the training participants. Some coordinators are also "content specialists" and so have responsibility for overall coordination of every aspect of the training program, including curriculum and resource development and other educational issues. Other coordinators may focus more on the administrative and logistical tasks involved in the content portion of the training. Assuming that learning objectives and training goals have been clearly established by the training team and training sponsors well in advance of the training, the process of addressing educational needs includes management of curriculum materials, resource materials, other learning aids, training of faculty and guest speakers, training schedule, and the learning formats to be used. PHYSICAL NEEDS The participants, staff, and faculty involved in a training program have a wide variety of physical needs, and the primary goal for meeting these needs focuses on establishing maximum comfort that is individually tailored as much as possible. This includes ensuring accessibility for participants with disabilities and accommodating any and all special needs of participants and faculty; comfortable and clean rooms for participants and faculty who are staying on- site; plentiful, appetizing, and nutritious meals and snacks (if meals are not provided, then information regarding good local restaurants should be provided); well-lit and temperate meeting rooms with comfortable chairs; access to telephones; and provision of transportation and/or information regarding its availability. EMOTIONAL NEEDS The coordinator is the contact person for all participants and faculty. You must be visible, available, and accessible at all times. It is especially important for participants to know that there is one person to whom they can direct questions, concerns, problems, and complaints. It is crucial for the coordinator to understand that training programs, while learning-filled, fun, and often exhilarating, can trigger anxiety in many participants. Even seasoned faculty members can experience anxiety or concerns regarding a coordination matter. It is important for the coordinator to thoroughly understand this role and be willing and able to serve as the "central processing unit" or conduit for contact with the outside world. This can include crisis intervention and/or simply emotional support. In meeting the emotional needs of participants and faculty, coordinators may feel like "emotional punching bags." Coordinators should attempt to avoid taking issues, complaints, and concerns personally. It is helpful for coordinators to have a support person--usually a faculty member--who can debrief in difficult situations, brainstorm solutions to problems, and provide "care to the caregiving coordinator." If stress resulting from other people's emotional needs is not addressed, it can detrimentally affect both the attitude and the effectiveness of coordinators. The Many Roles of the Program Coordinator Program coordinators fulfill many roles--some of these include: o Scheduler. o Contract negotiator. o Program designer and planner. o Content expert. o Curriculum developer. o Advertising guru. o Audiovisual aid coordinator. o Budget broker. o Faculty coordinator. o Participant/student liaison. o Program sponsor liaison. o Information clearinghouse. o Physical/emotional first aid provider. o Facilities expert. o Housekeeper. o Troubleshooter. o Financial manager. o Complaint department. o Sounding board. o Mood monitor. o Deadline enforcer. o Clock watcher. o Humor relief; and let's not forget-- o Diplomat. The above list is not exhaustive by any means; effective coordination involves wearing not one hat, but literally dozens of different hats each and every day. For some people (but certainly not all), this work can be immensely interesting. However, keep in mind that effective coordination is not an "add-on" to other training tasks; it is an art that must be learned. As stated by Rosemary Caffarella: Effective program planners are not born that way. Through trial and error, they become more skilled at balancing the various components and tasks of the process (1994, 24). Because many adult trainers and educators are primarily content specialists, they may not have been exposed to or even be aware of material and information on program planning. Many learn coordination specifics "by the seat of their pants" during a previous training program, or by being asked (though they have no prior coordination experience) to serve as program coordinator for an upcoming program because of their position in the sponsoring or training organization. No matter what a coordinator's past experience, there are four principles of the coordination process that are essential to a basic understanding of the complexities of coordination, as well as the key role it serves in helping to ensure the success of any training endeavor. Four Guiding Principles of Coordination COORDINATION IS A NONLINEAR PROCESS In program coordination, there is no set order or sequence to the tasks involved. Jobs and duties do not follow one after another in orderly fashion; rather there is a constant and ever-evolving circle of interconnected parts that requires continual checking and re-checking, monitoring, and attention. The analogy of a juggler is appropriate; a coordinator must become very adept at keeping a lot of balls in the air at the same time, and be prepared to start all over again with a smile if one (or all) of those balls drop! Program coordinators must develop a working style that allows them to monitor and document the ongoing progress of the various details to which they must attend. Accurate and comprehensive record keeping is a must. It is extremely helpful to have accessible contact information (telephone number, e-mail, etc.) for all parties, e.g., training team members and facilities staff, with whom the coordinator communicates on a regular basis before, during, and after the training program. ORGANIZATION IS MANDATORY Whether you are coordinating a training for seasoned domestic violence practitioners or an academic-based educational training on restorative justice, the first rule to remember is that you must possess (or quickly develop): (1) a high level of organization; (2) an extreme degree of attention to detail; and (3) great flexibility. Again, this kind of working style is not for everyone, but program coordination will quickly suffer if the coordinator is not thoroughly in control of the many details that need to be addressed throughout the development, planning, and implementation of a training program. Successful program coordination must include an organized working plan for literally every aspect of the training program, including: o Program goals and objectives. o Staff and administrative assistance--needs and tasks. o Budget and finances. o Marketing and participant outreach. o Logistical arrangements. o Development and coordination of training materials and resources (including audiovisuals). o Faculty selection and coordination. o Participant coordination and communication. o Communication and coordination with the training sponsor. o On-site training requirements and coordination. o Evaluation. o Follow-on activities related to the program. As stated by Caffarella: Careful planning of educational programs does not guarantee their success, but it increases their probability for success. It also gives planners better data on which to evaluate their successes and failures (1994, 7). THE PERSONAL BELIEF SYSTEM OF THE COORDINATOR DIRECTLY AFFECTS THE TRAINING Another important but often overlooked aspect of program coordination is the impact that a coordinator's personal belief system--and attitude toward adult learning and program planning--has upon the training itself. Many times coordinators think that since much of what they do in preparation for a training or educational program is largely unseen by the participants, their attitude toward program planning will not affect the participants. Alternatively, if a program coordinator is not directly involved in training the participants, she or he might feel that her or his understanding of the program and adult learning in general is not critical to the program's success. This is, quite simply, untrue. If you are coordinating a program for adult learners, regardless of whether you are actually involved in making a presentation or facilitating a session, you must understand the underlying goals and purposes of this learning, and be aware of the attitudes you bring to the program planning and educational process. As discussed in Chapter 3, Ultimate Adult Learning, adults learn best when they are involved in the learning process and when what they are learning is relevant for them in their professional lives. Adults do not want to be "taught to"; rather, they need to be active participants with a stake in the outcome of any learning process. The philosophy and belief system that a coordinator possesses with respect to adult learning permeates every aspect of a training program. If it is inconsistent with the goals and objectives of the training, participants will know it and will react accordingly. Boyle (1981) and Apps (1991) have provided some useful questions and categories for help in assessing one's beliefs and attitudes about the following four key areas: The Purpose of Adult Education o To promote changes in the way workers behave so their job performance is enhanced. o To encourage the growth and development of individual. o To assist adults to bring about change in societal norms and values. The Program Planning Process o Program planners should act as content experts and/or managers of the planning process, making sure all necessary tasks are completed. o Program planners should serve as coordinators and facilitators in the planning process, enabling all parties (such as participants, supervisors, funding sources) to have an active role. They also may be content experts. o Program planners should act as negotiators between and among the various groups involved in the planning process. They also may be content experts. Adults as Learners o Adults can and do want to learn regardless of age. o Adults have a rich background of knowledge and experience that should be used in the learning process. o Adults, for the most part, are pragmatic in their learning. They want to apply their learning to present situations. The Learning Process o Participants learn best when new information/skills build on past knowledge and experience. o Participants are more motivated to learn when a variety of teaching methods are used. o Participants learn both in independent, self-reliant modes and in interdependent and collaborative ways (Caffarella 1994). PROGRAM COORDINATION MUST BE ETHICAL Closely related to understanding one's personal beliefs and values regarding adult learning and program planning is the necessity for program planners to act in an ethical manner in coordinating every aspect of the training program. Ethics in this context means ensuring that the training is coordinated and carried out in a way that is completely consistent with its stated goals and objectives. The following passage effectively illustrates the close connection between understanding one's approach to adult learning and the need for ethical coordination of a learning program: Although most program planners do not take the time to spell out clearly and precisely their working philosophies, being cognizant of and acting on one's beliefs about program planning is critical in planning programs for adults. Adult learners and program sponsors are usually quick at making judgments about planners who espouse one set of beliefs and then act in opposition to those beliefs. For example, if potential program participants are asked for ideas for future programs, they want to see those ideas used; and if their ideas are not used, they want to know why (Caffarella 1994, 31). This may seem obvious to most people, but actually, ethics in program coordination can often be inadvertently overlooked. There are some "gray areas" that can prove troublesome, even for coordinators with the best of intentions. Some examples of unethical program behavior are: o Asking people to serve in an advisory capacity and then ignoring their advice. o Stating the goals and objectives of a training program and then not modeling those goals and objectives in the training itself. o Employing big-name presenters who draw crowds, even though their presentations may be neither relevant nor effective. o Using out-of-date resources because they are less expensive to obtain (Caffarella 1994). As a coordinator, you need to periodically assess your own ethics in program coordination. Although an ethical "disconnect" can be minor and seemingly insignificant, ultimately it will affect the overall quality of the training and the educational experience for participants, not to mention the level of trust that can be achieved between the participants and the training team. The specific details that go into the task of program coordination vary considerably from training to training. What is universally true about program coordination, however, is the fact that this process sets the tone for the training and ultimately, the quality of learning that will take place. Although the kinds of tasks and events that need to be coordinated by any program planner is discussed further in this chapter, the ongoing focus, as it is throughout this manual, is on the process of coordination and how, when performed effectively, this process interrelates and interacts with the overall training process as well as enhances and maximizes the learning environment and process. Program Coordination in Action In looking at the specifics of program coordination and how program coordinators contribute to the maximization of adult learning, it is useful to separate this process along a continuum, including: (1) pretraining coordination; (2) on-site coordination; and (3) posttraining coordination. During all phases of coordination, the ultimate coordinator operates from the standpoint of fulfilling the following two essential queries: 1. How can the training process and learning environment be enhanced and maximized for the benefit of participants and the training team? 2. How can the coordinator meet the needs of participants and the training team in the most effective way possible so that maximum attention can be focused upon learning? PRETRAINING COORDINATION This phase of program coordination is clearly the most comprehensive in laying the foundation and setting the tone for a successful training program. For purposes of this discussion, it is assumed that the underlying objectives and educational goals for the training program have already been clearly and comprehensively established. Generally, the major tasks to be accomplished during this phase include: o Determine training dates. o Select site. o Develop and manage training budget. o Negotiate contracts for training facilities and amenities. o Select meeting rooms. o Advertise the training. o Develop training resources. o Arrange for academic credit or other continuing education credits. o Select participants. o Identify any special needs of participants and/or faculty. o Communicate/coordinate with participants. o Select/invite faculty. o Coordinate with faculty. o Coordinate with facilities staff. o Liaison with program sponsor(s). o Schedule technical equipment and staff. o Develop training schedule and agenda. o Purchase/acquire training supplies/resources. o Oversee evaluation process. Determine training dates. Decisions about the training dates depend on the availability of the site that is to be used for the training, whether it is in-house or must be contracted outside the coordinating organization. If it is imperative that a particular site be used, then clearly the training dates will revolve around its availability. As much as possible, training programs should be scheduled during weekdays so as to not interfere with participants' off time on the weekends. If additional time is needed, a carryover into Saturday can be optimal, particularly for people who may be traveling from out of town and who may need to allow for Saturday night stayover airfares. Make sure to check that your selected training dates do not conflict with any holidays or religious observances. Part of being multiculturally sensitive is not just including such information in your training program, but ensuring from the start that the selected date does not conflict with participants' religious observances. In addition, be aware of other training programs and conferences already scheduled in your state or on the national level. For example, a statewide victim services training is scheduled for victim advocates; however, because the state prosecutors' annual meeting is also scheduled for the same time, prosecutor-based advocates are faced with the difficult choice of which program to attend. Finally, if key presenters are needed for the program's success, they should be "locked in" as early as possible (popular speakers may plan their schedules up to one year in advance). Select site. Assuming other factors regarding the training have not already predetermined its location (e.g., it is a component of a university program or offered by an organization with its own training facility), there are typically prerequisites to meet regarding the location and how it fits into the overall training scenario. The site and corresponding facilities directly affect the learning that takes place. Obviously, the most important spaces for participants are the meeting rooms, both the large meeting rooms and any other rooms that might be used for breakout discussions or other smaller group activities. There are essentially five different types of facilities that may be appropriate for adult training programs: 1. In-house organizational facilities. 2. Hotel and motel facilities. 3. Conference and retreat centers. 4. University and college facilities. 5. Resort areas (Caffarella 1994). Depending on the learning objectives and goals, and the purpose and nature of the training program itself, there are advantages and disadvantages to each type of facility and site. Considerations and objectives should be specifically set forth well before this stage so that it is perfectly clear what type of facility will best suit the needs of the training. If facilities require contracts, program coordinators must check them out thoroughly and never rely on verbal or written descriptions alone. A checklist of issues to think about in considering and selecting a site for a training includes the following: 1. Availability on program dates. 2. Costs. o Meeting rooms o Food (meals and breaks) o Lodging o Recreation o Audiovisual equipment 3. Location. o Safe and secure lighting o Barrier-free access o Convenience 4. Transportation convenience. o Public --Convenience --Frequency --Cost 5. Accessibility for people with disabilities. o Private rooms o Parking 6. Meeting rooms. o Size o Appearance o Lighting o Decor o Furnishings 7. Cleanliness. o Ventilation, heating, and cooling o Sound projection 8. Supporting Services. o Food o Accommodations/lodging o Recreation o Fitness facilities o Public telephone o Quality of service 9. Accessibility to medical services in cases of emergency. 10. General factors. o Attractions in the area o Experience in hosting/housing educational programs o Site personnel o Safety issues (Nadler and Nadler 1987; Vosko 1991; Munson 1992) Develop and manage training budget. The program coordinator is usually responsible for developing and managing the program budget for the training. This is a complex task and one whose specific details are beyond the scope of this discussion. Yet, in terms of the process of coordination, it is critical that the budget reflects the objectives and goals of the learning program and that it be well-planned and understood by all essential parties to the process. The ability to develop a sound budget for a training program is also an acquired skill, one that requires the coordinator to essentially anticipate every need that will arise before development of the training has even begun. Remember, you do not want to run out of money just when it is time to buy the coffee and doughnuts for breaks! The program budget is much more than a description of the dollar amounts that will be allotted to each program activity and resource. It is a comprehensive and detailed planning guide that can serve as a very useful check throughout every stage of the program. The planning necessary for creating a comprehensive and thorough budget will serve as the primary foundation of and assurance that all program goals and objectives will be met. An example of the budget categories used for the National Victim Assistance Academy is attached as Appendix E, Sample Budget. Negotiate contracts for training facilities and amenities. Anything that will be provided by the training facility itself (e.g., hotel, university, etc.) must be included in a written contract. This includes all arrangements regarding meeting rooms, sleeping rooms, meals, refreshments, equipment, and any other obligation the facility agrees to undertake. The art of negotiating favorable contracts is another skill that can be acquired through experience and thorough questioning of and research into all particulars of the facilities. You should be aware of the legal elements of a contract as well as the ramifications of signing a contract. Seek legal help if you are unsure about any aspect of the contractual process. Select meeting rooms. Meeting rooms are critical since they are the primary learning environments, defined by Finkel as "every space in a facility in which meeting activities occur and the degree to which every detail of those spaces can be designed to contribute to higher levels of learning" (Caffarella, citing Finkel 1984). This requires a great deal of attention to numerous details so as to ensure that the environment is conducive to participant learning and the overall effectiveness of trainers and instructors. In some cases, there will be no choice as to meeting rooms, such as a training held in-house in the only space large enough to accommodate participants. In such cases, the available space should simply be used to its best advantage. However, when there is a choice as to which meeting space can be used, the following summary of factors set forth by Caffarella (1994) offers some important considerations: o Access. Choose rooms that are barrier-free and accessible (ramps, elevator access, braille directions). o Room size. Avoid overcrowding and oversized rooms. o Room structure. The ideal room structure is square. Watch out for narrow rooms and posts in the wrong places. o Windows. Choose rooms with no windows or rooms whose windows can be completely covered. o Furnishings. Make sure tables and chairs are movable. Chairs need to be padded and provide good back support. o Adornments. Check to see whether pictures, sculptures, or other types of adornment can be taken down. o Lighting. Look for indirect, warm fluorescent lighting and rheostatic controls. Eliminate all sources of glare. o Temperature. Make sure you are able to regulate the temperature. Keep the temperature between sixty-five and seventy degrees. If you err, err on the cool side. o Ventilation. Keep the air circulating in the room. o Noise. Check for noise from heating and air-conditioning units in adjoining rooms, corridors, and outside the building. o Acoustics. Check on the bounce and absorption of sound. o Electrical outlets. Identify the location and type of outlets (for example, prong outlets). o Computer hookups. Check for telephone jacks that would allow for computer hookups. o Access to other areas. Check for easy access to restrooms, vending machines, eating facilities, etc. The way the meeting room is arranged has a tremendous impact on the quality and quantity of learning that takes place. It is crucial for the coordinator to understand the learning objectives and the kind of learning and interaction that will take place. For example, if you want to encourage and utilize group processing, the ideal arrangement is probably round tables, not classroom style rows. Tables should be arranged in a semi-circle around the presentation area. Moreover, you may need to allow for space for special equipment, such as computers, overhead projectors, or distance learning equipment. Smaller spaces lend themselves better to a more intimate learning environment; if you have no choice but to use a larger room, make arrangements to partition it or use the seating arrangement to create a smaller, more congenial learning environment. In larger meeting rooms, the emphasis is the same; although in a training of 100 or more people, you obviously will not have the same seating flexibility or opportunity for individual participant sharing. Again, the environment should be maximized to allow for as much participant involvement in the lesson as possible. Amphitheatre style seating arrangements (try to have tables or lap desks) can be effective when all participants have a good view and the acoustics are good. Make sure in larger meeting rooms that instructors and facilitators have the option of using microphones if they have trouble being heard by all participants. Hand held and clip-on microphones--particularly those without cords--can be especially helpful since they do not limit the speaker to one specific location. One final note on seating arrangements: If you are using a space off-site and are asked by the facility staff how you want the room arranged, be specific. Do not hastily describe what you have in mind, assuming that they have done this a hundred times before and so will know exactly what you want. A drawing is worth a thousand words, and a highly specific and detailed drawing even more. The room should be set up, if at all possible, the night before the training is to begin, and you should check it at that time to be sure it is the way you want it. Advertise the training. Depending on the type of training, there are many options for advertising the event to potential participants, including brochures, fliers, advertisements in trade magazines, online advertising via e-mail and Web sites, etc. Any advertisement should answer the basic questions of who, what, where, when, and why. Having a clear picture of the audience to be reached is the essential first step to any marketing campaign (Caffarella 1994, 174). The materials should be geared toward the target audience in such a way that potential participants are able to clearly understand requirements and/or prerequisites for the program. In keeping with the ethical approach to program coordination, it is critical that the coordinator, even a coordinator who is not involved with content aspects of the training, be keenly aware of the needs of the target audience. Since one of the primary tasks of any program coordinator is information broker, the coordinator must be familiar with what is being offered and how it can contribute to and enhance the professional experience and expertise of potential participants. For example, victim service professionals who call for information about the National Victim Assistance Academy (NVAA) are often interested in knowing how they might benefit from the training and whether their experience level is appropriate for them to be participants. While training announcements vary based upon length of the program and topics, etc., the core components to consider for advertising a program include: o Cover page that includes the title of the program, days, dates, location, and sponsorship. o Introduction/overview that highlights the reasons for the training (why participants should attend). o Conference/training goals. o Description of target audience. o Information about the training faculty (including brief credentials). o Information about conference resources available to participants (as well as opportunities for them to bring resources to share with others). o Answers to frequently asked questions, i.e. whom to contact for additional information via telephone, fax, e-mail, or Web site. o Training agenda/topics. o Registration and fees (if applicable). o Lodging and logistics (if applicable). o Dress code. o Registration form with details and deadlines for submission. o Academic credit or other continuing education/professional credit available to participants. Develop training resources. Responsibilities for the program coordinator in this area can vary considerably, from a primary and direct involvement in content to more of an oversight role. The development of resources for a training program is a major undertaking in and of itself, so the coordinator must understand that this task must be extremely well planned and carried out within clearly established deadlines and budget constraints. As with any other task in the process of coordination, the coordinator must identify staff and faculty members who have the expertise and availability to assist in the development of resource materials, and must coordinate all aspects of development and final production of the materials. The coordinator must also ensure the compliance of all training resources with any applicable Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements, e.g., closed-captioning for videotapes. Arrange for academic credit or other continuing education credits. Some training programs, like the NVAA, provide the opportunity for participants to receive credit, such as academic credit at the undergraduate and/or graduate levels, or continuing legal education or other allied professional education units. When this has been identified as an objective of a training program, the coordinator must initiate approval processes well in advance of the start date for the program. Approval processes for university academic credit, for example, vary from university to university and must typically go through several channels of approval before a final decision is made by the credit-granting university. Similar procedures exist for continuing professional education credits. The key to this task is to identify the university or other academic personnel who are the pertinent decision-makers for the credit issue and work closely with them to satisfy the requirements for making educational credit available to participants. It is also important to work closely with them to ensure that you thoroughly understand the requirements, both administrative and academic, that participants will need to satisfy in order to receive credit. Detailed and clear instructions regarding all aspects of educational credit should be sent to all participants along with their confirmation package. Select participants. Depending on the training requirements, participants may simply register, apply to attend, or may be required to attend due to professional standards/requirements or simply a supervisor's request. The impetus for attendance can be a major determining factor in how the participant feels about attending the training (e.g., coerced, thrilled, etc.) and how to market the training. Identify any special needs of participants and/or faculty. It is the role of the coordinator to become aware of any special needs of participants or faculty that will require accommodation during the training program. This information can be carefully elicited through the use of a registration form that encourages participants to list any special needs, and by personal communication with participants and faculty prior to the training program. When individuals express their special needs via a registration form, always contact them personally to discuss the specifics of the need(s) and ensure that you understand exactly what it will take to meet them. Special needs are as varied as are individuals, and almost all can be met as long as the coordinator becomes aware of them. Although the ultimate coordinator meets the special needs of all participants and faculty as a function of the participant-centered training process, it is important to remember that the ADA imposes legal requirements that must be met, in most training situations, with respect to individuals with disabilities. Arrangements for interpreters for deaf participants or special dietary needs for individuals with allergies or physical ailments, or ensuring the accessibility of facilities for individuals with disabilities can be easily accomplished as long as the coordinator is aware of the needs in advance. If a participant does not, for some reason, disclose a special need or accommodation before arriving on site, you must address that need as quickly and comprehensively as circumstances at that time will allow. Since most special needs must be arranged in advance, this underscores the need for personal communication with all participants well in advance of their arrival. Communicate/coordinate with participants. One of the best ways to start a training program off on the right foot is to be accessible and reliable for training participants prior to the program. Once the first contact is made with participants, the tone is set. Your objective as a coordinator is to establish a credible and trustworthy relationship well before the participants arrive. Once participants are confirmed for the training, they should receive an attractive and comprehensive package of information regarding the facilities, meals, dress code, schedules, what to bring, surrounding areas, and any other information they may reasonably need in order to be fully prepared to begin the training. If at all possible, you should communicate with each participant in person, by telephone or e-mail, approximately two weeks before the start of the training to ask about their arrangements and any special needs or questions they might have about the training or logistical issues. If calling or e-mailing each participant is not feasible, use a welcoming letter encouraging them to call or e- mail with any questions or concerns. Select/invite faculty. Selection criteria for faculty are determined by the training objectives and goals as well as by the planning committee. Faculty should receive a formal letter of invitation as well as all pertinent information about the training facility, accommodations, travel arrangements, etc. All expectations about faculty members' contributions to the curriculum and training should be clearly spelled out. Request a copy of their one-page vitae for introductions. Again, personal contact by telephone is important if possible, and you should make your contact information, including telephone and e-mail address available and accessible. Coordinate with faculty. A primary function of the coordinator is to ensure that any trainers' needs for their presentations, facilitation, etc. are met before they arrive at the training. It is a good idea to send a checklist of potential teaching aids (see list of teaching aids in Chapter 6, Ultimate Presentation), such as: o Tear sheets and multicolored markers with wide felt tips. o Data projector equipment. o VCR. o Overhead projector. o Any special items for a planned interactive activity (construction paper, poster boards, etc.). Just giving trainers the opportunity to inform you of their training needs helps to ensure that they are thinking about what they will need before they arrive. It is particularly important to be sure that any materials they may want reproduced for participants are taken care of before the training begins. Another item to check with faculty is whether they wish to use music and whether they will need an audio tape/CD player. If the training program involves many faculty members with a variety of slides and participant handouts, it's a good idea to obtain electronic versions of these in order to add a unified look. A uniform background on "powerpoint" slides, and matching "headers" and "footers" on both curricula and handouts, offers the appearance of a streamlined and coordinated approach. Coordinate with facilities staff. One important rule to keep in mind with regard to coordinating arrangements with facilities staff is--the squeaky wheel gets the grease! It is crucial, of course, to develop good and pleasant working relationships with facilities staff members, but it is equally crucial to stay in touch with staff so that your arrangements are not inadvertently rearranged for you due to unexpected or last minute changes at the training facility. Your best bet against this happening is to develop a strong working relationship with one primary contact at the facility and make sure he or she understands the underlying needs, objectives and goals of your training. Developing and maintaining an on-site ally are crucial components for success. Liaison with program sponsor(s). Serving as the liaison with the program sponsors is typically a responsibility of the program coordinator. Again, ethical program coordination is the primary objective: keep the program sponsor apprised of all developments and ensure that the goals and objectives of the training are clearly understood and being met by all parties. Schedule technical equipment and staff. Technical equipment, such as data projectors, VCRs, and microphones, must be scheduled well in advance to ensure its availability, as well as the availability of any necessary technical staff. This may require coordination with different personnel (e.g., a university with a separate media department) and budgetary considerations; so it is important to ascertain the appropriate contact as soon as possible. It is important to ensure that all technical equipment meets any ADA requirements that may be in place (e.g., television monitors must have the capacity to read close-captioned videos). Develop training schedule and agenda. Schedule and agenda development should be coordinated with the trainers and sponsors of the training program, incorporating the underlying goals and objectives of the training. The schedule should be based on adult learning principles, and therefore it is critical that the coordinator ensure that trainers rotate presentation formats. In fact, it's a good idea for coordinators to attend training programs periodically to remember what it's like to be at the mercy of a training schedule! Breaks for participants are very important, especially after sessions that are emotionally intense or otherwise taxing. To the degree possible, after-lunch sessions should be interactive and engaging, as participants begin to tire at this point. Try to stay within a typical workday schedule and maximize opportunities for participants to network with each other. "Topic" tables during meals and opportunities for optional evening get-togethers are appreciated by many participants. Since there is a tendency to cram too many topics and too much information into one day, the coordinator and planning team should prioritize topics. In addition, the ideal training schedule should not exceed six hours a day, allowing for an additional 75 minutes for lunch and 30 minutes for breaks. Purchase/acquire training supplies/resources. This includes everything you will need on-site (all training aids, participant prizes, refreshments, etc.) such as: o AV equipment. o Tear sheets. o Masking tape and other office supplies, such as scissors, stapler, pens, etc. o Construction paper, glue, glitter, or any supplies for projects the students may do. o Markers (at least four different colors; water-based for use on tear sheets). o Overhead transparencies and pens (these are particularly helpful for large audiences, where it may be difficult to see writing on tear sheets). o Post-it notes for students to post inquiries, requests, etc. o Audio tape/CD player and music for breaks, sessions. o Prizes for participants--silly/funny items and/or items that have meaning in their profession, e.g., victim services posters, videotapes, etc. o Candy for participants (great during breaks). o Camera and sufficient film (post pictures of the training while it is going on-- get double prints and let students take pictures they want). o Sufficient copies of everything you will be handing out to participants during the training, including resource materials and daily/overall evaluations. See Appendix B.1, Presentation "Tools of the Trade" for a comprehensive list of training aids. Oversee evaluation process. Evaluations, daily, overall, and follow-up, must be developed by the training team in accordance with the goals, learning modalities, and learning objectives of the program. All evaluation forms should be copied and ready for handing out on-site. Its helpful to use a different color paper for each day's evaluation forms so they can be easily sorted and organized. Remind participants throughout the training that evaluation forms are a major and essential method for obtaining feedback on the training and/or recommendations for change. Make sure that participants have adequate time to complete their evaluations and know where to put them when they are finished. ON-SITE COORDINATION Although the program coordinator and other staff have been working and planning for participants' maximum learning and comfort for the past three to twelve months (or more), this activity has not been very apparent to the arriving participants. What is extremely apparent is the level of organization that exists when the participants arrive at the meeting room on the day of the training. As Smith and Delahaye (1987) point out: Although most program participants are unaware of or indifferent to what went into planning a program, they are usually immediately cognizant of the details related to its on-site coordination; and they form opinions about the program based on those details. Until now the program coordinator has focused on preparing for the training. Now it is time to ensure that all preparations have been successfully completed and every precaution has been taken to keep things running smoothly during the training. As Knowles (1980) points out, "I am convinced that what happens in the first hour or so of any learning activity (course, seminar, workshop, institute, tutorial, etc.) largely determines how productive the remaining hours will be." Although it is to be expected that something will probably go wrong (remember Murphy's Law!), it is important to do everything possible to ensure that the participants enter a learning climate that is organized, energetic, fully participant-centered and ready for them. On-site coordination can be exhilarating, fun, and also challenging. It is the coordinator's primary responsibility to serve as a reliable support to the participants and training team in all three of the areas of need identified above: education/learning, physical, emotional. Even with the best of preparation, expect the unexpected. Air conditioning systems break down, faculty members have last minute emergencies and cancel, A/V equipment malfunctions. Such happenings are all in a day's work for the ultimate coordinator. A positive and upbeat attitude will accomplish more than any amount of agonizing over unforeseen events and/or problems. The coordinator must remain outcome- oriented and tend to such events as quickly and positively as possible. The mindset of the coordinator in the face of unexpected events will directly affect the experience of the participants; know that you set an example and make an invaluable contribution to the learning environment when you handle any and all training "glitches" with grace, dignity, diplomacy, speed, and humor. Major on-site tasks for the coordinator include: o Prepare final checklist of all arrangements. o Give final and clear staff assignments. o Complete registration materials. o Set up participant resource table. o Meet and greet participants. o Conduct orientation for participants. o Attend to all on-site needs throughout training. o Monitor learning environment and participant "moods." o Thank participants, faculty, and staff. o Develop a plan to respond to inquiries for follow-on information and resources. It is also good to keep in mind that the coordinator should and can enjoy the training. Being organized and staying on top of things should help you arrive at the training fully prepared for just about anything. The importance of arriving well rested cannot be overestimated. Prepare final checklist of all arrangements. As much as possible, everything that can be in place prior to the arrival of the participants should be. The following checklist includes items that should be finalized anywhere from one to seven days prior to the training program: ------------------------ Final Checklist for Participant-Centered Programs Items to be Checked: Points to be Considered for Each Item Facilities (meeting rooms for large and small-group sessions, meal areas, break areas, breakout rooms): o All facilities are accessible to persons with disabilities. o Lighting is adequate. o Ventilation is good. o Temperature is comfortable. o Layout of room (arrangement of tables and chairs, placement of equipment) is what was requested. Meals and breaks: o Menus reflect what was requested, and vegetarian and kosher options are available for every meal. o Final count of people for each meal and break is done. o Exact times for meals and breaks are established. Sleeping accommodations: o Reservations are in order for both participants and staff. o Rooms are clean, comfortable, and secure. Trainers and Program Staff: o All staff have a clear understanding of their roles and tasks. o All presenters, facilitators, and instructors are accounted for. Equipment: o The correct equipment is placed in the correct rooms. o All equipment is working properly. o Backup parts and equipment are available and easily accessible. Materials/Resources: o All items are complete and ready. o The number of copies allows for ten more copies than the number of participants). o The materials are arranged in order of use, or by day. Travel: o Transportation needs are provided for (travel to the site, on-siteparking for participants and staff, etc.) o Responsibility for assisting participants and/or program presenters with transportation is assigned. o Transportation needs, and for whom, is determined. Program Schedule/Agenda: o People have been assigned responsibilities for keeping theactivities on time. o Methods for keeping on schedule have been agreed upon. On-site Registration: o Procedures are clear and participant-friendly. o Available registration times are posted and have beencommunicated to participants. o Nametags and other registration materials are ready and arranged alphabetically. o Staff/trainers are available one hour prior to registration. Message Availability: o Procedures for participants receiving emergency messages whilein training have been established. o An emergency contact telephone number has been given to all participants prior to their arrival. o A staff person has been assigned responsibility for being the contact person for emergency messages. o Every participant has provided an emergency contact number at home to the coordinator. ------------------------ Give final and clear staff assignments. Staff assignments should be made regarding everything that needs to take place during the training program, from handing out evaluation forms to daily announcements to staying on schedule, etc. Literally anything and everything that needs to be handled by a staff member should be assigned beforehand to eliminate the possibility of confusion or disorganization. Complete registration materials. All registration materials, including folders, schedules, and nametags, should be neatly laid out and ready for participants to pick up at least one hour before the training begins. A staff member should be on hand to talk with participants as they pick up their materials and to answer any questions. Nametags and name plates should be alphabetized for easy access. The nametags should also feature large print that is easily read from a distance of ten feet. Set up participant resource table. Many training programs utilize one or more resource tables with current information, research, and publications pertinent to the professional affiliation of the participants. It is also useful to provide a table(s) for participants to leave materials about their own programs or other relevant resources. Meet and greet participants. If possible, the coordinator (as well as other trainers and staff) should personally meet and greet each participant individually. Inquire about their arrival, registration process, any difficulties they may have experienced, etc. Many participants feel anxious prior to the beginning of a training program. This is an excellent opportunity to begin breaking the ice, getting to know the participants, and introducing them to each other. Conduct orientation for participants. When opening a training, the coordinator or other trainer usually conducts a short orientation about what the participants can expect during their stay. This should cover logistical matters, meals, expectations of students and faculty, schedule issues and/or changes, and any other concerns. It should be as interactive and participant-centered as possible so that information flows in both directions. This is the first group opportunity to illustrate the training team's desire to meet the learning needs and expectations of the participants. It is good to keep the orientation session upbeat, fun, and short. Let the participants know that you are available at all times and interested in any feedback, comments, questions, or concerns they may have at any time. Attend to all on-site needs throughout training. This task sounds relatively simple, doesn't it? As coordinator, think of yourself as the host of a very large and complex party. All questions about everything from why the salad bar does not include anchovies, to where the overhead transparencies are for the Tuesday morning session, to why there are not extra blankets in the sleeping/hotel rooms, will probably be directed to you. Remember: All questions and inquiries are equally important and should be promptly and thoroughly investigated and resolved. Your preparation should have eliminated as much last minute confusion as possible. Yet no training program runs perfectly, and you can never anticipate all needs, particularly those of the participants on-site. You must be genuinely interested in responding and attending to the concerns of all participants and faculty; if you are not interested (or are perceived as not being interested), the maximum effectiveness of the learning environment may be compromised. Program coordinators should be available on-site and accessible at all times during the training. Monitor learning environment and participant moods. Coordinators must constantly monitor the learning environment to ensure that conditions are optimum. Is the temperature comfortable and consistent? Are participants comfortable with the seating arrangements? Are the refreshments delivered on time for breaks and is the quantity sufficient? Are speakers able to be heard clearly? Is all the equipment working properly? This is not only a last-minute check, but also a constant re-checking to ensure no glitches develop. It is also crucial to monitor participants' reactions to the program. Circulate during breaks and ask for feedback. Do participants have any concerns that need to be addressed through a group process that you can bring to the attention of other faculty members? Are there any participants who are having trouble with the material or perhaps reacting to some difficult or emotionally intense session? Let participants know you are there for them to handle any kind of feedback they may have, positive or negative. The learning environment and mood is a dynamic process--it is not something to be established at the beginning of a training and then forgotten. All potential problems can be handled, in one way or another, as long as the coordinator and entire training team remains participant-centered and aware. Thank participants, faculty, and staff. As part of the formal closing (more fully discussed in Chapter 8), honor the participants by acknowledging and thanking them for their participation and commitment during the training process. Where applicable, they should receive special certificates, with their individual names, for successfully completing the training program, signed by the program and organizational sponsors. Do not forget to thank staff and faculty for their invaluable contributions with a special token of appreciation or small gift. It is crucial to acknowledge the hard work and personal investment by all parties to the training as a form of closure. Develop a plan to respond to inquiries for follow-on information and resources. Prepare a sign-up sheet for participants to fill out if they wish to be put on future mailing lists and/or request additional or ongoing resources. Announce to participants that the sheet is available for sign-up throughout the training as well as where it will be located. POSTTRAINING COORDINATION Since the primary focus of this chapter is on the process of coordination and how it affects the quality of adult learning that takes place during a training program, the emphasis on post-training coordination is minimal except to point out the importance of some essential factors. Faculty debriefing. It is helpful to conduct a quick, on-site faculty debriefing to determine which training techniques and processes were effective, and which need improvement. A simple debriefing approach called "Alpha-Delta" can provide a "snapshot" of faculty assessments. Two-column charts can be prepared in advance, with the debriefing/evaluation topic on top, and "alpha" (things that went well) and "delta" (things that need improvement) in each of the columns. Typical topics for faculty debriefing include: o Content of training program. o Faculty (which requires a group commitment to honesty and open communication). o Curriculum and resource materials. o Schedule and time allotments for different subjects. o Training techniques. A summary report of the debriefing outcomes should be prepared and provided to all faculty. (See Appendix B.2, "Alpha-Delta" Faculty or Participant Debriefing.) Closing down the training. Coordinators must ensure that all items are packed up and all equipment that remains on-site is there and in the same condition it was when the training began. Make contact with any facilities personnel to thank them for their assistance as well as for final instructions regarding billing matters and/or equipment return. Make sure that all evaluations are collected and carefully packed up and returned so that the evaluation results can be properly recorded and summarized in an overall evaluation report for the program for the program sponsors and presenters. Finally, go home and take a well-deserved rest! Preparation of the evaluation report. One of the most essential elements for improving, refining, and further developing a training is the evaluation. The evaluation report should reflect the feedback of participants as literally as possible and be made as comprehensible and readable as possible for program sponsors, faculty, and staff. Follow-up evaluations should also be conducted with participants three to six months after the training has concluded to inquire about the impact the training has had upon them personally and professionally, and whether the learning objectives were successfully achieved and maintained. Follow-up communication with participants. All participants should have received a list of the students and faculty with all appropriate contact information (name, agency, mailing address, telephone, fax, e-mail, and Web site) so that they can communicate with one another after the training has concluded. The coordinator should send a letter to all participants thanking them again for their participation and perhaps enclosing a memento from the training, such as a certificate of completion (if not already received) or photograph of the participant taking part in the training program. Let students know that you are interested in all outcomes (what they do with the training they received) and would like to hear about ways they put their new knowledge to use, as well as any additional feedback they might have. A three- to six-month follow-up evaluation should be conducted so that the program sponsor, planning committee, and training team can learn specific ways that the training was useful and beneficial to participants, as well as any changes that should be made. The Ultimate Coordinator Is All Things to All People! The ultimate coordinator is, indeed, all things to all people, particularly during the training program. Although this philosophy cannot be carried out on a daily basis without exacting a major physical and emotional toll, it can and should be maintained by the coordinator during the training program. As much as possible and within human limits, program coordinators must be prepared to do everything within their power to keep the show running smoothly and to ensure that all conditions are in place, and kept that way, to allow for maximum adult learning. References Apps, J. W. 1991. Mastering the Teaching of Adults. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing. Boyle, P. G. 1981. Planning Better Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill. Caffarella, R. 1994. Planning Programs for Adult Learners. A Practical Guide for Educators, Trainers and Staff Developers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994. Finkel, C. 1984. "Where Learning Happens." Training and Development Journal, 38 (4): 32-36. Knowles, M. S. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education. New York: Cambridge University Press. Munson, L. S. 1992. How to Conduct Training Seminars, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Nadler, L. and Z. Nadler. 1987. The Comprehensive Guide to Successful Conferences and Institutes. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers. Smith, B. J. and B. L. Delahaye. 1987. How to Be an Effective Trainer, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley. Vosko, R. S. 1991. "Where We Learn Shapes Our Learning." In R. Hiemstra, ed., "Creating Environments for Effective Adult Learning." New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, (50), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ---------------------------- Chapter 3. Ultimate Adult Learning Historical Roots of Adult Learning Principles Since the 1970s, adult learning theory has offered a framework for educators and trainers whose job it is to train adults. Malcolm S. Knowles (1973) was among the first proponents of this approach. In his book, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, he resurrected the word "andragogy" a term popular in German education circles in the early 1800s, and used it to label his attempt to create a unified theory of adult learning. Knowles' contentions were based on four assumptions: 1. As they mature, adults tend to prefer self-direction. The role of the instructor is to engage in a process of inquiry, analysis, and decision-making with adult learners, rather than to transmit knowledge. 2. Adults' experiences are a rich resource for learning. Active participation in planned experiences--such as discussions or problem solving exercises, an analysis of those experiences, and their application to work or life situations-- should be the core methodology for training adults. Adults learn and retain information more easily if they can relate it to their reservoir of past experiences. 3. Adults are aware of specific learning needs generated by real-life events such as marriage, divorce, parenting, taking a new job, losing a job, and so on. Adult learners' needs and interests are the starting points and serve as guideposts for training activities. 4. Adults are competency-based learners, meaning that they want to learn a skill or acquire knowledge that they can apply pragmatically to their immediate circumstances. Life or work-related situations present a more appropriate framework for adult learning than academic or theoretical approaches. Robert W. Pike (1989), an internationally recognized expert in human resources development and author of the book Creative Training Techniques, has conducted thousands of adult training seminars. His principles of adult learning, referred to as "Pike's Laws of Adult Learning," have built upon the original philosophy to provide similar guidance for trainers: Law 1: Adults are babies with big bodies. It is accepted that babies enjoy learning through experience, because every exploration is a new experience. As children grow, educators traditionally reduce the amount of learning through experience to the point that few courses in secondary and higher education devote significant time to experiential education. It is now recognized that adult learning is enhanced by hands-on experience that involves adults in the learning process. In addition, adults bring a wealth of experience that must be acknowledged and respected in the training setting. Law 2: People do not argue with their own data. Succinctly put, people are more likely to believe something fervently if they arrive at the idea themselves. Thus, when training adults, presenting structured activities that generate the students' ideas, concepts, or techniques will facilitate learning more effectively than simply giving adults information to remember. Law 3: Learning is directly proportional to the amount of fun you are having. Humor is an important tool for coping with stress and anxiety, and can be effective in promoting a comfortable learning environment. If you are involved in the learning process and understand how it will enable you to do your job or other chosen task better, you can experience the sheer joy of learning. Law 4: Learning has not taken place until behavior has changed. It is not what you know, but what you do that counts. The ability to apply new material is a good measure of whether learning has taken place. Experiences that provide an opportunity for successfully practicing a new skill will increase the likelihood of retention and on-the-job application. Adult Learning and the Ultimate Educator DESIGN AND DELIVER TRAINING FIRMLY GROUNDED ON PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING For more than two decades, adult learning theory has served as the framework for training adults. The idea that adults as learners require different educational strategies than children was first voiced fifty years ago when Irving Lorge (1947), writing about effective methods in adult education, suggested that to reach the adult learner, you have to teach to what adults want. He stated that adults have "wants" in the following four areas: 1. To gain something. 2. To be something. 3. To do something. 4. To save something. Eduard Lindeman, also writing in the 1940s, proposed that adults learn best when they are actively involved in determining what, how, and when they learn. Since the 1970s, several authors and training experts have expanded upon the original concepts presented as adult learning theory. Ultimate instruction, as used here, means helping adults to learn and involves far more than lecturing or presenting information. It involves instructing for results-- powerful, highly effective instruction that results in applicable learning for adult participants. The material presented here is intended as a guide for both new and experienced trainers and educators. The reader is encouraged to adapt these ideas and techniques freely and to modify them as necessary to compliment his or her unique style of instruction. You, too, can become an ultimate educator. KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULTS AND CHILDREN AS LEARNERS Adults differ from children as learners. An adult has assumed responsibility for himself/herself and others. Adults differ specifically in self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, time perspective, and orientation to learning. Traditional teaching applied to children is "jug and mug" with the big jug (the teacher) filling up the little mugs (the students). Students are asked to pay attention and have few opportunities to make use of their own experience (Klatt 1999). The following chart identifies some key differences between children and adults as learners: ------------------------ Child and Adult Learning Characteristics Children o Rely on others to decide what is important to be learned o Accept the information being presented at face value. o Expect what they are learning to be useful in their long-term future. o Have little or no experience upon which to draw, are relatively "blank slates." o Little ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to teacher or fellow classmates. Adults o Decide for themselves what is important to be learned. o Need to validate the information based on their beliefs and values. o Expect what they are learning to be immediately useful. o Have substantial experience upon which to draw. May have fixed viewpoints. o Significant ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to the trainer and fellow learners. ------------------------ INSTRUCTION BASED ON FIVE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING Leadership Experience Appeal Respect Novel Styles Often, peoples' expectations about the role of an instructor and beliefs about how adults learn are derived from personal experience in a college lecture hall or a job training program or from studying classical learning theories. However, learning in adult human beings seems to be a more complex phenomenon than some of the classical theories suggest. Three principles that provide the foundation for adult learning today can be summarized as follows: 1. The adult learner is primarily in charge of his or her own learning. Remember that instructors do not have the power to implant ideas or to transfer skills directly to the learner. They can only suggest and guide. 2. An instructor's primary responsibility is to do a good job of managing the process through which adults learn. 3. The learners are encouraged to use their own judgment and decision-making capabilities. Instructors are leaders, not dictators. They do have responsibility to make decisions, provide guidance, and be a resource for the students' learning. Although instructors often view themselves as the ultimate authority on the subject matter, it is still up to the learners to determine whether the ideas presented in the session should be incorporated into their work or personal lives. Despite the primary role of the learner, instruction is not a passive, laid- back, go-with-the-flow process for the instructor. As the facilitator and catalyst for participants' learning, the instructor makes it possible for learning to happen by designing and performing all the activities that the learning processes requires. In their research on adult learning, Sullivan, Wircenski, Arnold, and Sarkees (1990) assert that the establishment of a positive learning climate hinges on understanding the characteristics of adult learners who will be participating in the instructional process. They report the dynamics of the instructional process are very much dependent on the instructor having a clear understanding of the participants. Sullivan et. al. cited applicable characteristics of relevance, motivation, participation, variety, positive feedback, personal concerns, and uniqueness. Principle 1: Leadership. The adult learner enters the training or educational environment with a deep need to be self-directing and to take a leadership role in his or her learning. The psychological definition of "adult" is one who has achieved a self-concept of being in charge of his or her own decisions and living with the consequences; this carries over into the instructional setting. Thus, instructors can help learners acquire new knowledge and develop new skills, but they cannot do the learning for learners. Although adults may be completely self directing in most (if not all) aspects of their lives, some can fall back to their conditioning in school and college and put on their hats of dependency, fold their arms, sit back, and say "teach me" when they enter a program labeled "education" or "training." (This is especially true when adults enter a "training room" set up "classroom style.") To resolve the "dependency" problem, adult educators have developed strategies for helping adults make a quick transition from seeing themselves as dependent learners to becoming self-directed learners. Adult educators, in the development of a learning environment, define the process through which learning takes place. For example: o The instructor guides the learners in determining the relevance of the learning for their own lives and work; whereas, o The learners are encouraged to use their own leadership, judgment, and decision-making capabilities. To reinforce the notion of learner responsibility in the instructional process, a variety of activities can be used to obtain information from participants regarding what they want to get out of the session and to ensure a match between instructor and participant objectives. Information should be gathered from participants prior to the session to assess participants' skill levels, prior training, education, and professional experience and interest in, need for, and expectations for the session. This can be done through an application form, learning contracts, a mail (electronic or paper) survey of registered participants, or a brief telephone interview if the number of participants is small. This information can be used to organize instructional objectives, sequence content, and design-reinforcing activities. During an introductory section, participants can be asked to write down their most important goal for the session, and then be asked to share their expectations. Students are asked to put their comments regarding goals on a wall chart labeled "expectations" or "learning goals." Instructors can also ask participants to list the skills, experience, and positive characteristics they bring to the learning environment. This process honors participants, identifies participant resources for the group, and provides additional assessment data. The instructor can read goals from the sheet periodically throughout the session and indicate when a section is particularly designed to meet that learner's need, thereby reinforcing learner investment in the session. The ultimate educator remains alert to the first principle of adult learning: Adults enter the learning environment with a deep need to be self-directing and take a leadership role in his or her learning. Principle 2: Experience. The word "experience" holds two meanings for the ultimate educator. Experience is the accumulated knowledge an individual arrives with at the session, as well as an individual's active participation in events or activities during the session. Adults bring to a learning situation a background of experience that is a rich resource for themselves and for others. In adult education, there is a greater emphasis on the use of experiential learning techniques (discussion methods, case studies, problem-solving exercises) that tap into the accumulated knowledge and skills of the learners and techniques such as simulation exercises and field experiences that provide learners with experiences from which they can learn by analyzing them. A rich, adult-focused instructional approach takes into account the experiences and knowledge that adults bring to the session. It then expands upon and refines this prior knowledge by connecting it to new learning, making the instruction relevant to important issues and tasks in the adults' lives. In discussing what all learners have in common, Robert F. Mager (1992) stated that the more you know about participants, the better you can tailor instruction to meet their needs. He provided the following list of key points concerning experience: o Everyone comes to the learning situation with a lifetime of experience, regardless of age. o The lifetime experiences of each learner are different from those of others. o Lifetime experiences also includes misconceptions, biases, prejudices, and preferences. In other words, some of what people think they know is actually wrong. It is also important to recognize that the experience that adults possess is significantly different in quality from that of youths: o Few youths have had the experience of being full-time workers, spouses, parents, voting citizens, organizational leaders, or other adult roles. Accordingly, adults have a different perspective on experience: it is their chief source of self-identity. o To youths, experience is something that happens to them, whereas adults define themselves in terms of their unique experiences. o An adult's experience is who he or she is. So if an adult's experience is not respected and valued, it cannot be used as a resource for learning. Adults experience this omission as a rejection of their experience and as a rejection of them as persons, which negatively affects learning. Few individuals prefer to just sit back and listen to a teacher or trainer go on and on about the topic. The effective instructor keeps this point in mind and designs learning experiences that actively involve adults with various levels of experience in the instructional process. This entails practice activities such as discussion, hands-on work, or projects for each of the concepts that the instructor wants the participants to master. Concentration is also an important issue. Humans can only consciously think about one thing at a time. It is essential to provide learning environments that help learners concentrate on their learning tasks. Contents, formats, and sequences must be interesting to compete with other attention-demanding thoughts and environmental intrusions (McLagen 1978). Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985) found that adults have a broader base of experience to which new ideas and skills can be attached; furthermore, a broader experience base allows adults to incorporate new ideas and skills with much richer and fuller meaning than do youths. The more clearly defined the relationship between the old and the new (through discussion and reflection), the deeper and more permanent the learning will be. For example: o On-the-job training, small group discussions, case study work, or even computer-based training all embrace the concept that participation helps increase involvement in the learning process and retention of the knowledge. Information that goes into the participant's memory will likely be remembered if learners practice remembering the information soon after they process it. Therefore, it is important to provide opportunities in the session for review and remembering by means of activities like written summaries, application exercises, and discussions (Zemke and Zemke 1995). Studies show that over a period of three days, learning retention is as follows: o 10% of what you read. o 20% of what you hear. o 30% of what you see. o 50% of what you see and hear. o 70% of what you say. o 90% of what you say as you do (e.g., orally work out a problem) (Pike 1989). The ultimate educator knows that experience is a rich resource for adult learning and therefore actively involves adults in the learning process. Principle 3: Appeal. Appeal is the power of attracting or arousing interest. Adult learners are motivated to learn when they have a need to know. They want to know how the instruction will help them and often ask themselves the following questions: o What's in it for me? o Why do I need this information? o How will I benefit from it? o How can I make use of it in a practical, real way? o How will it help me be a better person or professional? Training and development expert Robert F. Mager (1992) brings this point home with his first two rules of training: o Rule #1: Training is appropriate only when two conditions are present: --There is something that one or more people do not know how to do. --They need to be able to do it. o Rule #2: If they already know how, more training won't help. Adult orientation to learning is centered on life or work. Therefore, the appropriate frameworks for organizing adult learning are life and/or work- related situations, not academic or theoretical subjects. Meaningful learning can be intrinsically motivating. The key to using adult's "natural" motivation to learn is tapping into their most teachable moments: those points in their lives when they believe they need to learn something new or different (Zemke & Zemke 1995). Sometimes, adults enter the learning environment with little interest or motivation. Many genuinely want to improve their job performance or to learn new knowledge and skills in order to move up the career ladder. Their motivation can diminish if the instructor fails to direct and encourage this or other interests and motivations. Trainers can help learners develop an early and appropriate "mental set" for learning programs by overviewing the course objectives, describing upcoming activities, and helping them see the future advantages of the instruction to them and their work (McLagen 1978). Introductory exercises early in the session can help establish the mental set. For example, an exercise titled "hopes and fears" allows participates the opportunity to express their learning goals and concerns. In this exercise, participants are instructed to write down on tear sheets their hopes (goals and desires) and fears (concerns and specific issues about the instructional session), individually or in small groups. The instructor then uses this information to ensure that instructional objectives are on the mark and that the instructor is sensitive to individual participants. Motivation can be improved and channeled by the instructor who provides clear instructional goals and learning activities that encourage and support strong learner interest. To best capitalize on this high level of learner interest, the instructor should explore ways by which the needs of each learner can be incorporated into the training sessions. This would include: o The use of challenging and exciting learning experiences. o Learning activities that are self-paced and tailored to individual rates of learning. Five Ways to Squelch Motivation o Have little personal contact. o Get participants in a passive mood and keep them there. o Assume the class will apply what is taught; do not bother with examples. o Be alert to criticize. o Make them feel stupid for asking questions in class (Pike 1992). Studies show that part of an adult's preparation to learn is determining the benefits of the learning, as well as the disadvantages of not learning. Allen Tough (1972) found that adults would expend considerable time and energy exploring the benefits of learning something, and what the costs would be of not learning it before they would be willing to invest time and energy in learning it. Therefore, a key principle in adult learning is that the ultimate educator needs to develop an appeal, a "need to know" in the learners--to make a case for the value in their life performance of learning what is offered. At the minimum, this case should be made through testimony from the experience of the instructor or a successful practitioner; at the maximum, by providing real or simulated experiences through which the learners experience the benefits of knowing and the costs of not knowing. Principle 4: Respect. The word respect here is defined as "esteem." The instructor of adults must show deferential regard for the learner by acknowledging an adult learner's experience and creating a climate in the learning setting that conveys respect. People are more open to learning if they feel respected. If they feel that they are being talked down to, patronized, or otherwise denigrated, their energy is diverted from learning to dealing with these feelings. The following suggestions are offered as ways in which the instructor can help foster a comfortable, productive learning climate through the attitude that he or she projects: o Show respect for the learner's individuality and experience. o Be sensitive to the language you use so that learners are not inadvertently offended. o Be open to different perspectives. o Adopt a caring attitude and show it. o Treat the learners as individuals rather than as a group of people who are all alike. o Support all learner comments by acknowledging the "rightness" that is in each comment and each person. o Take the learning process seriously because it is serious and important (McLagen 1978). Establish a learning climate of: o Mutual respect. o Collaboration rather than competition. o Support rather than judgment. o Mutual trust. o Fun. Adult learners respond to reinforcements. Although adult learners are usually self-directed, they do need to receive reinforcement. Most people are like dry sponges waiting for a drop of appreciation. Instructors should take every opportunity to demonstrate appreciation in the classroom. Sullivan, Wircenski, Arnold, and Sarkees (1990) write that the need for positive feedback is a characteristic of the adult learner. Like most learners, adults prefer to know how their efforts measure up when compared with the objectives of the instructional program. Adults have a tendency to "vote with their feet"; that is, if they find the program to be a negative experience, they will find some reason to drop out of the program before its completion. The ultimate educator honors adult learners' individuality and experience and creates a safe, respectful, and participant-centered environment for learning to take place. Principle 5: Novel Styles. The last principle refers to individual or novel styles that characterize learners. Novel styles are defined as different, unique learning styles and preferences. Generally, most adults prefer to be treated as individuals who are unique and have particular differences. The instructor must keep in mind that although adults have common characteristics as learners, adults also have individual differences and most adults have preferred methods for learning. Adult learners respond better when new material is presented through a variety of instructional methods, appealing to their different learning preferences. No matter how well planned a program is, individual differences among participants often make it necessary to make some adjustments during the program. Flexibility can be incorporated into programs, but such flexibility must be grounded in an understanding of how learners may differ. When developing an instructional program, the instructor must take into consideration the novel styles of learning that each adult brings to the session. The following section discusses a variety of approaches to learning style. Learning Style Most adult learners have developed a preference for learning that is rooted in childhood learning patterns. To understand and address adult learners, it is important to understand differences in children's development and learning. As children develop, their ability to process information is affected by their own individual strengths and weaknesses and the environment in which they grow and learn. Individual differences in children's interests, aptitudes, abilities, and achievement can be quite pronounced. For example, some children have an especially strong auditory memory that enables them to remember what they hear with little effort, while others may be less skilled. This can be seen in differences in following verbal directions given by a teacher or coach, or in the ability to learn the words to a new song. Some children have an especially keen eye for noticing detail in pictures or a design in a pattern. This can be seen in differences in speed in recognizing letters of the alphabet or understanding principles of geometry. Some children are very talented artists from the first moment they are given crayons or other tools to draw, while others develop such a skill through structured learning opportunities at school and at home. Behavioral characteristics can also affect learning in children. Children may have a short attention span or be easily distracted by sounds or movement around them, while others can stay with a task for a lengthy period of time, regardless of what might be going on around them. Some children appear more "emotionally mature," which can translate into greater patience, ability to cooperate, or a higher tolerance for frustration, while others become upset quickly if a task is frustrating. Some children have a "need to move" or be more active than is typical for their age group; others simply have more stamina, and so on. In addition, stimulation and opportunity can affect ability and achievement. If a child is deprived of opportunities to move, explore, touch, grasp, and/or interact with sound and speech, long-term learning ability is diminished. Furthermore, without opportunities to use once learned skills, the ability to perform tasks is often lost and must be relearned. It must be emphasized that adult learning theory is based in the notion that we are not "just teaching grown-up children." It must be recognized that a person's aptitudes and abilities are shaped by individual differences and early learning experiences and continue to be influenced by experience and training throughout adulthood. In fact, many adults seek jobs that consistently give them opportunities to display special talents and rely upon their preferred learning style. ADULT LEARNING STYLES (Portions of the following section were excerpted with modification from National District Attorneys Advocacy Center, Train the Trainers Workshop, 1999.) In adult learning theory, several approaches to learning style have been developed and are prominently used in training and educational programs. These include learning styles based on the senses that are involved in processing information; theories of intelligence, including emotional intelligence and "multiple intelligences"; and preferences for learning conditions, i.e., the environment in which learning takes place. In order to provide a framework for a discussion on adult learning style differences, each of these approaches is briefly discussed. Auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners. Differing aptitudes, abilities, and experiences have caused individuals to develop a preference for sending and receiving information through one sense over another. Most often people prefer auditory or visual input; however, some people have a preference for kinesthetic learning, i.e. learning that involves movement. A preference for one type of learning over another may be seen in the following ways: o Visual learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Graphic illustrations such as bar graphs or crosstabs to explain data; color codes to highlight salient information; maps to find their way on the subway or while driving in a new city; written material to study new concepts; wall charts that display points to be remembered; written outlines; drawings or designs to illustrate overhead presentations; sitting "up close" in a presentation in order to see the presenter's face, gestures, or visuals; taking notes during a lecture; instructors to repeat verbal directions. o Auditory learners prefer, enjoy, or require: A verbal presentation of new information, such as a lecture; group discussions to hear other points of view or practices; fast-paced verbal exchanges of ideas; a good joke or story that they can repeat for others; verbal cues or pneumonic devices to help them remember information; music at the beginning or during transitions in a training setting; words to accompany a cartoon; oral reports of working groups. o Kinesthetic learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Movement, such as rocking or shaking a leg during a lecture; hands-on experience to learn a task; gestures while making a point; role play exercises over discussion groups; shaking hands when meeting or greeting people; trying new things without a lengthy explanation of the activity; frequent breaks; regular opportunities to change seating or room arrangement; "just doing it" rather than talking about it. While it is thought that people have developed a preference for or have greater skill in processing one type of input over others, most people simultaneously process information through multiple senses. In fact, the retention of learned material is enhanced if the learner is asked to process information using more than one sense. Presentations that are multisensory (using visual and auditory components) in combination with interactive activities will increase learning and retention for most adults. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (Portions of the following section were excerpted with modification from National District Attorneys Advocacy Center, Train the Trainers Workshop, 1999.) Intelligence has long been considered a key factor in predicting and evaluating learning. Educators have developed a variety of teaching strategies to accommodate varying levels of intelligence, most of which have been based on a traditional Western approach to intelligence. Theories of adult intelligence have evolved considerably in recent decades. The traditional constructs of IQ (intelligence quotient) derived from verbal and nonverbal intelligence have been expanded to include EQ (emotional quotient, suggesting that emotional maturity and ability contribute significantly to achievement), as well as theories of "multiple intelligences." Howard Gardner (1982), a proponent of "multiple intelligences" theory, suggests that educators do people a disservice by thinking of intelligence levels in traditionally narrow dimensions that relate most significantly to academic achievement. Gardner proposes seven broader dimensions of intelligences: o Verbal and linguistic. Ability to deal with words and language, both written and spoken. o Logical and mathematical. Ability to do inductive and deductive thinking, numbers, abstract patterns, and reasoning ability. o Musical. Ability to recognize tonal patterns, pitch, melody, rhythms, and tone. o Kinesthetic. Ability to use the body skillfully. o Visual and spatial. Ability to observe and process visual stimuli and visualize or create visual images. o Interpersonal. Ability to develop and maintain relationships and understand, communicate, and work with other people. o Intrapersonal. Understanding of self and one's own feelings, values, and purpose. Many instructors have found applications for this new way of defining intelligence or aptitude. In general, the instructors have utilized this theory to support the notion that instruction should entail far more than a verbal/linguistic presentation of ideas, and include experiential opportunities that enable people with varying types of "intelligence" to be successful. Learning Environment Conditions Affect Learning The physical environment in which instruction takes place and the structure of the activities in the course can also affect learning positively or negatively. People react differently to such factors as room temperature, arrangement of the room (e.g., closeness of seats), time of day (early morning versus late in the day), brightness of the lighting, and sound (e.g., noise distractions from nearby construction or talking among participants). In addition, adults differ with regard to whether they prefer to work alone or in groups. Sharon Fisher (1989) has combined all of these factors to depict the various types of preferences that adults may have when they enter the learning environment: ------------------------ Adult Preferences Regarding a Learning Environment Physical Factors o Learning Setting: -- Noise Level --Lighting --Temperature --Structure --Time of Day Emotional Factors o Social Needs: --Learn Alone --Learn with Others o Motivation: --Extrinsic --Intrinsic Learning Factors o Learning Styles: --Auditory --Visual --Kinesthetic ------------------------ An instructor must recognize that adults' preferences in these areas may affect their responsiveness in the session. Efforts should be made to accommodate differences by providing a variety of learning activities in which participants may feel comfortable. The ultimate educator delivers instruction in a stimulating, rich, and diverse environment through a variety of instructional methods to appeal to adult participants' learning styles and preferences. The Ultimate Educator Is an Adult Learning Expert! Adult learning theory is grounded in the notion that adults are in charge of and need to be active participants in their learning. Adults bring a wide range of experiences and perspectives to any instructional setting, and are most likely to be motivated when they see a connection between the learning objectives and activities and their own work or life. Adults also bring preferences for how they learn as well as varying aptitudes and abilities. Ultimate educators provide opportunities for adults to use what they already know and apply what they are learning in the instructional setting. References Gardner, H. 1982. Art, Mind and Brain. New York: Basic Books. Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Leading Successful Workshops & Training Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill. Knowles, M. 1973. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company. Lorge, I. 1947. Effective Methods in Adult Education: Report of the Southern Regional Workshop for Agricultural Extension Specialists. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State College. Mager, R. F. 1992. What Every Manager Should Know about Training. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company. McLagen, P. A. 1978. Helping Others Learn: Designing Programs for Adults. MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. National District Attorneys Advocacy Center. 1999. Train the Trainers Workshop. Columbia, SC. Pike, R. W. 1989. Creative Training Techniques Handbook. Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Books. Tough, A. 1972. Adult Learning Projects. Ontario: Institute for Studies in Education. Zemke, R. and S. Zemke. June 1995. "Adult Learning What Do We Know for Sure?" Training. ---------------------------- Chapter 4. Ultimate Style and Skill Introduction Beginning with your first academic experiences, you have recognized differences among teachers--some were great; some put students to sleep. Many years later, with a greater focus on improving your own abilities, you attended training sessions, observed and rated the instructors, and questioned whether or not you would be able to replicate the actions and styles that you felt were most effective. You observed and studied all types of trainers, educators, and facilitators; afterward you said, "I can do that, but I can't do that!" The more the instructor seemed like you, the more comfortable and confident you felt in trying out new innovative techniques. What you experienced was a "style identity crisis." You compared and contrasted your own personal style and abilities with those of the instructor. You wondered if you measured up. You questioned whether you could change to become more dynamic and effective. The ultimate educator is a risk taker, willing to try out new techniques that push the envelope, and willing to accept the challenge to become the "best of the best." This chapter can help you assess your skills and polish your style so you can become an ultimate educator! Style Stereotypes Before you assess your own style, take a look at some styles you may recognize. Maybe you will see yourself in these pages! Behind each of the following styles is an assumption that may affect the learners in a negative way and impede their learning. Although the assumptions behind the styles are exaggerated, they reveal the implications of the style and may help you become more aware of the impact of a style that you have adopted or thought was effective. THE SCHOLARLY PROFESSOR "Listen to me, take good notes, you learn by paying attention to me. I am the expert--you will be tested on what I say." The professor uses lecture as the primary method of delivery. Written tests are the most common type of assessment. Contact with students is minimal; he or she arrives just before the session and leaves immediately after. The training is instructor-centered; what the instructor says is important. The professor style implies that the trainer's approval, not the learners' subsequent performance, is the goal of learning. Students' thoughts and opinions are not important. THE CLOWN "I'll make you laugh and entertain you. I have a story and joke for all occasions! You may not learn anything, but you'll like me and have a great time!" The clown tells jokes and entertaining stories. Training success is measured by "smiles," not performance. The clown is everyone's friend; impression is important. The training is instructor-centered; the instructor wants you to like him/her. The clown is often a very popular trainer; participants are satisfied and may, at first, not notice that actual learning was limited or nonexistent. The clown style implies that "entertainment" is the goal of training--learning is not important. THE TECHNO TRAINER "The technological wizardry will captivate you! With videos, presentation software, and other high-tech gadgets, I will cover everything you need to know. I hope the power doesn't go out!" The techno-trainer takes a back seat to the technology. The trainer relies on the technology to accomplish the training. Testing is based solely on information delivered by technology. Contact with participants is minimal, and not necessary. Students are not actively involved in the learning process. If the technology fails, the training fails! The techno style implies that the trainer's role is simply to provide information, not to help participants learn. THE CHEERLEADER "I'll fire you up! You'll be inspired, motivated, eager to go out and conquer the world! Give me a "T"; give me an "R"; give me an "A"; give me an "I"; give me an "N"; give me an "E"; give me an "R"--what's that spell? TRAINER!" The cheerleader relies on high energy and inspirational exercises to move participants to action. Training success is measured by the level of excitement generated by the instructor. Contact with participants is extreme. Learning and subsequent performance are less important than participant excitement (that eventually fades). The trainer depends on diffuse excitement versus directed motivation based on learner desire and need. The cheerleader style implies that excitement will lead to performance. THE DRILL INSTRUCTOR "Do you hear me, trainee? You will listen to me, do what I say, and keep quiet! I don't care what you think or feel; it's what I think and feel that's important! Got that, trainee?" The drill instructor is in total control of the learning environment--the trainer's goals are the only goals considered. The trainer believes that he/she must "whip" participants into shape. Training success is measured by the participants' ability to replicate the instructor's actions to his or her satisfaction. Repetition is the primary teaching strategy. Participants are made to feel stupid when asking questions or demonstrating performance that is less than satisfactory. The drill instructor style implies that the participant is a moron, incapable of independent thought or action. While the above styles were exaggerated, the implications are clear. Do you see your style in these descriptions? What does your style "say" to participants? (The preceding training styles are adapted from F. Margolis and C. Bell, Instructing for Results.) Communication Style Your dominant communication style also affects your training effectiveness. John Bledsoe (1976) outlined four communication styles based on Carl Jung's psychological types: intuitor, thinker, feeler, and sensor (more fully described in the following chart). Every trainer and participant uses a blend of the four behavioral styles. Despite using a blend or mix, each person relies most heavily on a primary or dominant style. While no style should be considered good or bad, trainers should identify their own style and be able to identify the styles of training participants. With this awareness, you can adjust your style to communicate most effectively with participants. What is your communication style? Study the following chart and see if you can identify your primary style. ------------------------ Training Styles and Characteristics Primary Communicating Styles Intuitor o Typical Telephone Behavior: Wordy but aloof. Impersonal. Goes off on tangents. Not mindful of your time or his/her time. o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Imagination in selection of new wave furnishings and decor. Round conference tables, inspiration-pads on walls, offbeat periodicals. Citations for idealistic work, community service and pet causes. o Typical Style of Dress: Hard to predict. May be like an absent-minded professor. More into ideas than image. May be too wrapped up in future goals to think about daily appearance. Alternately, may have imaginative self-concept that may reflect in clothes from stunning to outlandish. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Original --Imaginative --Creative --Broad gauged --Charismatic --Idealistic --Intellectually tenacious --Ideological Ineffective --Unrealistic --"Far-out" --Fantasy --Scattered --Devious --Out-of-touch --Dogmatic --Impractical Thinker o Typical Telephone Behavior: Business-like, but lackluster. Little voice inflection. Ticks off specifics. Ordered, measured manner. Sometimes suggests ground-rules for phone conversation, i.e., "Shall we begin with your agenda or mine?" o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Correct and nondistracting. Furnishings that are tasteful but conventional. Charts for business use, reports, and reference works nearby. Few touches of informality and color. o Typical Style of Dress: Conservative "proper." Unassuming, understated. Dress invariably appropriate to circumstance. Business-like in office; well tailored, correct in nonwork atmosphere. Color-coordinated, but not colorful. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Effective communicator --Deliberate --Prudent --Weighs alternatives --Stabilizing --Objective --Rational --Analytical Ineffective --Verbose --Indecisive --Over-cautious --Over analyzes --Nondynamic Controlling Over-serious --Rigid Feeler o Typical Telephone Behavior: Warm and friendly, sometimes seemingly too much so. Does not seem to distinguish between business and personal calls in the sense that he/she is likely to be quite informal. Interjects humor, personal associations, questions about one's well being, etc. Likes to gossip. Talks incessantly. Feels rude if hangs up fast. o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Personalizes surroundings; makes office informal and somewhat "homey." Likes warm colors, antiques, big, live plants, mementos, snapshots rather than formal photographs of family. Papers and files, etc., are likely to be messy on the surface, organized underneath in a personal way that only he/she can understand. o Typical Style of Dress: Dress is more according to own mood than to suit others' expectations. Likes colorful, informal clothes. Often has sentimental, favorite articles of clothing. Sometimes shows a hankering for old-fashioned touches or "costume" effects. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Spontaneous --Persuasive --Empathetic --Grasps traditional values --Probing --Introspective --Draws out feelings --Loyal Ineffective --Impulsive --Manipulative --Over personalizes --Sentimental --Postponing --Guilt-ridden --Stirs-up conflict --Subjective Sensor o Typical Telephone Behavior: Abrupt. Staccato. Gets to the point; expects others to do the same. Interrupts. Needs to control the conversation. o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Generates atmosphere of hard- charging clutter. Mementos, if any, connote action: heads of animals hunted, golf trophies, mounted fish, racing prints. Desk is likely to be big, messy. Too busy to be neat; too action-oriented to be concerned with image unless she/he has a strong thinker back-up style. o Typical Style of Dress: Informal, simple, functional clothes are not the order of the day. Wants to be neat but not fancy. Tends to categorize; everyday or dress-up. If sensors see the occasion as being "special," they throw simplicity to the winds; their competitive zeal then rises to the surface and they may "outclass" everyone. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Pragmatic --Assertive --Directional, results-oriented --Objective --Competitive --Confident Ineffective --Does not see long-range --Status-seeking --Self-involved --Acts first, then thinks --Lacks trust in others --Domineering, arrogant ------------------------ As the above table illustrates, it can be fun to stereotype and exaggerate descriptions of training and communicating styles. However, it is important to become and remain aware of how your style may affect your students' learning process. The next section explores specific skills that constitute the trainer's repertoire and gives you an opportunity to assess your skills and develop a plan of improvement. Trainer Skill Assessment What makes a good trainer? "Train the trainer" literature looks at this question in a variety of different ways from "presage and process variables" to "stand-up skills." Some experts focus on what instructors must do to provide effective instruction. Other experts look at leadership, presenting, facilitating, and other "stand up" skills important for successful instruction. This section begins with a look at what differentiates a "successful" trainer from the pack and finishes with an examination of specific skills for effective instruction. SUCCESSFUL INSTRUCTORS o Students fully understand what is expected of them. o Objectives are clearly stated. o Instruction is based on learner needs and wants. o Students are given the opportunity to practice. o Students are given immediate feedback. o Students are treated with respect. o Students are the most important people in the classroom. o Students are valued. Frank O'Meara (1996) provides ten rules for novice trainers to assist them in getting off on the right foot as trainers. His rules are also a reminder to veteran trainers to keep their attention focused where it belongs--on the learners. These rules will not make you an instant successful trainer, but may help you avoid some training pitfalls. 1. Change your shoes. Imagine yourself as a member of your audience, see the subject from your learners' point of view. 2. Get your act together. Know your stuff. 3. Loosen up. Hang loose and smile. 4. Un-complicate it. Express your ideas in the simplest possible language. 5. Put it on ice. Motivate your participants to make them feel it is their program. 6. Vary your pitch. Be comfortable with several different teaching techniques so as to maintain and renew interest and participation during the day. 7. Let George do it. Until they tell you, show you, and do it themselves, they have not acquired the knowledge or mastered the skill you want them to learn. 8. Play it again, Sam. Repetition is the mother of learning. 9. Accentuate the positive. Be patient and positive in trying to ensure each individual's comprehension and proficiency. 10. Get a receipt. The point of your training session is to make sure participants know what they are supposed to know. Bruce Klatt (1999) writes that while most people think of "delivery skills" such as presenting, leadership, and facilitating as the most important factors to consider when assessing trainers, they are not as important as a trainer's background, experience, attitude, and development. He asserts that the basics of workshop leader success are: o Be technically competent in your field. o Bring who you are to what you do as a workshop leader. o Be informed and care about your participants. o Continuously develop yourself and your workshop or training program. Also writing about workshop leadership, Garry Mitchell (1993) says like it or not, the trainer/educator is the authority figure during the session. The learners give you this power. He states that the trainer must assume it; you have no choice! Mitchell lists ten leadership roles critical to successful instruction: 1. Setting the agenda and keeping track of time. 2. Maintaining training objectives. 3. Protecting the rights of all participants. 4. Listening. 5. Summarizing the material. 6. Reviewing. 7. Focusing the attention of the group. 8. Handling challenges to your authority. 9. Involving silent members. 10. Providing a modus operandi (be decisive, never apologize, avoid confrontation, move in and solve problems as soon as they become apparent). How many of the behaviors of successful instructors do you demonstrate in your training sessions? Recognizing the actions "successful" instructors take to deliver effective training is helpful as you look to add to your bag of training tricks. Some specific instructor skills and behaviors important for effective teaching are identified in the following section. TRAINER SKILLS Caldwell and Marcel (1985) surveyed trainers to identify the behaviors or characteristics that they considered essential to effective teaching. The survey results were organized into trainer evaluation forms for "presage" and "process" variables. Presage variables are the characteristics that an instructor brings to the teaching situation. They influence the learning process but are not as much a part of the instructor's performance as process variables. Assess yourself on presage variables, i.e. what do you bring to your training sessions? o Knowledge of subject matter. o Good speaking ability. o Enthusiasm, positive attitude. o Well prepared, good organization. o Depth of understanding. o Poise, confidence. Process variables. Behaviors that are evident and easily observed in the actual presentation of a lesson are process variables. Assess yourself on process variables: o Keeps control of class (does not allow students to get off the subject; adapts instruction to the level of the class; flexible, etc.). o Gives feedback and positive reinforcement. o Is fair and impartial (nonjudgmental, open, accepting, etc.). o Communicates at the students' level (using language and examples appropriate to the level of the class.). o Involves students in the lesson (through questions, problem solving, simulations, etc.). o Shows interest in each learner. o Is an attentive and responsive listener. o Has clear objectives. Richard Miller (1974) summarized student surveys on the characteristics of effective teaching. The results of eight surveys are listed below to serve as yardsticks to measure your teaching behaviors. ------------------------ Characteristics of Good Teaching Bousfield (61 Students, University of Connecticut) o Fairness o Mastery of subject o Interesting presentation of material o Well organized material o Cleanness of exposition o Interest to students o Helpfulness o Ability to direct discussion o Sincerity o Keenness of intellect Clinton (177 students, Oregon State University) o Knowledge of subject o Pleasing personality o Neatness in appearance and work o Fairness o Kind and sympathetic o Keen sense of humor o Interest in profession o Interesting presentation o Alertness and broad-mindedness o Knowledge of methods Deshpande (674 students rating 32 engineering teachers) o Motivation o Rapport o Structure o Clarity o Content mastery o Overload (too much work) o Evaluation procedure o Use of teaching aids o Instructional skills o Teaching styles French (Students at University of Washington) o Interprets ideas clearly o Develops student interest o Develops skills of thinking o Broadens interests o Stresses important materials o Good pedagogical methods o Motivates to do best work o Knowledge of subject o Conveys new viewpoints o Clear explanation Gadzella (443 students, Washington State University) o Knowledge of subject o Interest in subject o Well prepared o Uses appropriate vocabulary Perry (1,493 students, faculty, and alumni, University of Toledo) o Well prepared for class o Sincere in interest in subject o Knowledge of subject o Effective teaching methods o Tests for understanding o Fair in evaluation o Effective communication o Encourages independent thought o Course organized logically o Motivates students Pogue (307 students, Philander-Smith College) o Knowledge of subject o Fair evaluator o Explains clearly Hildebrand (138 students, University of California, Davis) o Dynamic and energetic person o Explains clearly o Interesting presentation o Enjoys teaching o Interest in students o Friendly toward students o Encourages class discussion o Discusses other points of view ------------------------ The above information should be utilized to take a critical loo